CSR: Being a fish in the sea

This article has a special meaning for me: it is my first published article ever. It was written last year as a college assignment for a 'Feature Writing' unit, which was taught by Patrick, but it had only been published in The Jakarta Post last February when I had already arrived here in Melbourne. I'd like to thank Patrick for his contribution and guidance that made this article possible. Let's hope that this is the first of many more to come!



CSR cannot be an optional topping on the corporate pizza; it must be more like the yeast in a loaf of bread. CSR must be a critical component, part of what defines the corporation, not something that is added on and can be done without to save money.

That was the main point Professor Emil Salim wanted to get across when we sat down last week to discuss the current state of CSR and corporate sustainability in Indonesia.

Pak Emil is almost a legend in Indonesia. An intensely patriotic Indonesian who developed a taste for Japanese food while living under the harsh conditions of the occupation of World War II, he was educated at University of Indonesia, and went to Berkeley on a scholarship; he came home with a PhD and since then he held various Indonesian ministerial posts including 10 years as Minister for Population and Environment.

He is a professor on the Faculty of Economics at his alma mater, UI, a member of countless boards, associations, and yayasans, most doing work on social and environmental sustainability. He is also a member of the Presidential Council of Advisors, where his guidance on issues related to sustainability helps form public policy. Pak Emil is a committed environmentalist, often speaking on the relationship between economics and sustainability; being seventy-eight years old hasn’t slowed him down or eroded his commitment.

That CSR needs to be an inherent part of any corporate culture was the main message he wanted to deliver. For sustainability itself to be sustainable, Pak Emil argues that the sense of social responsibility must be embedded in the corporation’s DNA; sustainability must be an inherent component of every corporate activity.

Hugh Collett, a teacher at Jakarta International School, is another committed environmentalist. He is in the process of developing a ‘sustainability village’ that will be a model of sustainable living; it is to be an educational resource as well as a practical example of how life can be carried on while leaving a minimal footprint. Pak Emil is on the board of Directors of the yayasan created to manage the village.

Collett argues that if sustainability is not inherent in a corporate culture, bureaucracy and other structural issues can be a hurdle. How important is corporate commitment? “That … depends on how willing such corporations are prepared to ‘walk the talk’. In my experience promoting my own environmental initiative of an educational eco village, talking is easier than walking (and less expensive!)”, he says.

As to the practical implementation of the concepts, CSR consultant and university lecturer Patrick Guntensperger, another member of the board of Mr. Collett’s village, insists that sustainability decision-making must be at the highest possible level of the corporate structure. “At the very minimum, there should be an executive vice president with the word ‘sustainability’ featuring prominently in the job description. Of course, a committed board of directors is vital too.”

What he is getting at is that for sustainability to be a prime criterion for corporate decision making to become habitual, the process must be overseen by someone with the highest possible authority and sustainability as a core value. Pak Emil also adds to this point. “The technology is there. What we need is the will to make it happen, and that is the decision of the board of directors.”

A perfect example of this is Body Shop. Dame Anita Roddick, its founder, is known for championing the unconventional way of doing business by promoting its ethical aspects. She famously summarised the company’s way of doing business: “The business of business should not just be about money, it should be about responsibility. It should be about public good, not private greed.”

Indeed, Body Shop took part in numerous campaigns that embrace sustainability, ‘Our Incredible Planet’ being one of them, since the establishment of its first store in 1976. The company’s mission statement also strongly emphasizes sustainability; the corporation strives to “courageously ensure that our business is ecologically sustainable, meeting the needs of the present without compromising the future.” As for its products, without promoting sustainability and protection of the planet, Body Shop is just simply not Body Shop.

Collett also points out that the main roadblock to sustainability issues is actually a moral issue. “In essence, I believe that human selfishness and prevailing attitudes based on greed, self-interest, and ignorance are the root of the difficulties”. Nevertheless, with more and more corporations including CSR as a fundamental aspect of their style of business, things seem to be changing.

The key to implement CSR effectively, therefore, Pak Emil argues, is that corporations must build a symbiotic relationship with the society of which the corporation is part. “You must be the fish in a sea, in which the fish and the sea are interlinked; not as an island, detached from the sea. The role of CSR is building that relationship of being the fish in a sea.”

(The online version of the article can be found here.)

The Contributing Factors & Prospects of US-China Relations

In this relatively unipolar contemporary world, the rise of a potential new superpower certainly would not go unnoticed. The rise of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) has lead to a debate amongst political scientists and scholars on its relationship with the existing global superpower, the United States of America. “Only rarely does a single factor determine the way politics will work out” (Jarvis, 1991: p.40). The U.S.-China relations are no exception. There are many factors that contribute to the relations between the rising power and the superpower. Would China’s rise harm the established international system lead by the Americans? Or would it pose no significant threat whatsoever to the current order? Will the U.S.-China relations end up in tatters and lead to another Cold War-like era of international relations? Or would U.S.-China relations will have a much more peaceful resolution than that of the Cold War? This essay attempts to answer these questions by assessing the factors that shape the U.S.-China relations and the prospects of the nature of this relationship.

Discussing U.S.-China relations today must be done within the context of the global financial crisis. The current global financial crisis has strongly reinforced, if not sealed altogether, the need for both countries to maintain good relations. The fact of the matter is, whether they like it or not, the two counties are very much dependent on one another economically. As what Friedberg (2005: pp.6-7) describes as the liberal optimists would argue:

“The greater the volume of trade and investment flowing between the two countries, the more groups on both sides will have a strong interest in avoiding conflict and preserving peace. … Barring some major disruption, economic forces will probably continue to draw them together, constraining and damping any tendencies toward conflict.”

According to China’s Customs Statistics, in 2008, U.S. tops the list of China’s export destination with a total of $252.3 billion involved. U.S. is also one of China’s top import suppliers with a total of $81.4 billion worth of imports. With billions of U.S. dollars involved, there are certainly many groups that have a strong interest in avoiding conflict between the two countries. Losing a top trade partner is just not what countries have in mind amidst this current financial fiasco.

In the context of the global economy itself, explaining U.S.-China relations means explaining the relationship between the two largest economies in the world. As the two economic giants also aim to further expand their economy, maintaining a good economic interaction with each other serves their national interests well. As Friedberg (2005: p.37) argues, “assuming that they persist and grow, the mutual gains from an expanding economic relationship will remain the single most important peace-inducing force at work in U.S.-China relations.” Furthermore, the prospect of a war, the extreme consequence of the failure to maintain good relations with each other, can prove to be too costly for either country. In addition to that, the U.S. would certainly not add further avoidable complications to its already complicated foreign policy mission, with wars in Iraq and Afghanistan have yet to settle.

China’s rise to power will almost certainly boost its self-confidence. Reflecting on its status as the world’s most populated country and the second largest economy, China will consider attaining its place in the sun. As Friedberg (2005: p.13) noted, “like Germany at the turn of the twentieth century, rising powers tend to want their ‘place in the sun’.” Whether it is sooner or later depends on the administration in power. Furthermore, if there is any lesson that can be taken from this global financial crisis, it is that a U.S. leadership has its own weaknesses, as the roots of the crisis can be traced back to the superpower. However, this tendency to attain an even more prominent role in the international stage has been increasingly neutralised because of the next factor.

Since the late 1970s, under Deng Xiaoping’s opening policy, China has opened up its economic policy and adopted a market-oriented system. In one sense, the shift towards the Western economic philosophy was the onset of the country’s growth and helped the country achieve its current status as a significant economic force in the world stage. In another sense, China’s openness to the world is indicated by the number of international institutions the country participated in, as pointed out by Lampton (2001: p.163). By 1997, 20 years after Xiaoping’s reform policy, China had joined 52 international governmental organizations and 1,163 nongovernmental organizations. This trend also indicated a change in mindset; that China shifted towards conformity to the international society, in the sense that China attempts to be a part of the solution rather than the problem.

This also means that the ideological differences left between China and U.S. have been significantly reduced. U.S. foreign policy towards China should, therefore, consider this trend carefully. As Johnston & Ross (1999: p.19) argue:
“The key to success of a strategy designed to cope with a rising, dissatisfied power is accurately distinguishing limited-aims revisionist states, which merely seek changes within the existing order, from revolutionary powers, which aim to overthrow the system.”

Johnston and Ross explained that the difference between revisionist states and revolutionary ones is highlighted in the primary goal. Revolutionary powers seek to impose radical changes by fully replacing the established order of the status quo. The Soviet Union would fit under this category as its power struggle with the U.S. has been marked by a stark contrast of ideology. Revisionist states, however, does not seek to overthrow the status quo but merely push for an altered version of the established system. It is important to note that China has increasingly becoming a revisionist state in the past few decades. Its main agenda is no longer to expand the influence of communism, as the country’s economic policies itself has shifted away from old ideology. Therefore, in this aspect, the remaining ideological differences that exist in U.S.-China relations seem to fall short in sparking a direct conflict between the two countries.

One issue that is likely to spark a direct conflict, however, is Taiwan. Ross (2000: p.123) wrote: “The United States is committed to the defense of Taiwan, but it found itself in a confrontation with China that originated over a conflict of interest peripheral to U.S. security—the international legal status of Taiwan.” One important aspect that Ross emphasized is that the Taiwan issue is peripheral to U.S. national interests. Thus, U.S. should not risk jeopardizing its relations with China with something that isn’t a grave importance for the security of the American people. However, situation can easily change in this region, as both U.S. and China race to further expand their military power in order to attain the predominant deterrent factor. This power struggle might result in a dangerous cycle, as Friedberg (2005: p.16) argues:

“To maintain deterrence, Washington may then feel compelled to increase military assistance to Taipei and to take other measure designed to make it appear more likely that the United States would intervene if Taiwan were attacked. But these steps will almost certainly make the PRC more fearful of a Taiwanese bolt for independence, which will cause Beijing to further intensify its military efforts and heighten its rhetoric, and so on.”

Therefore, a reasonable solution would be for the two countries to simply let things as they stand. As long as the current situation is maintained, there will be no need for either side to take a preemptive step by enhancing its military power and induce a conflict-prone cycle that seems to have no end. As previously mentioned, the U.S. should be extra careful in shaping its actions towards China on the Taiwan issue to avoid conflict in order to prevent adding a third war to its national security agenda. Regarding the Taiwan issue, Professor Zagoria, the Director of the National Committee on American Foreign Policy’s Project on U.S.-China-Taiwan Relations, summed it up perfectly in his 2004 New York address: “Apart from Taiwan, there is no other issue now on the foreign policy radar screen that has the potential to bring about an unwanted war between the two major powers.”

Another issue that seems peripheral to the U.S. national security but yet is still an agenda in its foreign policy is China’s tainted reputation in the enforcement of human rights and the establishment of democracy. An open U.S. administration might have a slight chance in engaging with China towards a constructive discussion on human rights. Although it may not directly affect the U.S. people, stable relations in which how one perceives one of the other will directly affect them. Therefore, the U.S. should be selective as to decide whether the fight is worth fighting or not, as “ritualized U.S. criticism of the PRC’s human rights practices probably reinforces the impression that the United States seeks to undermine the current Chinese regime,” (Friedberg, 2005: p.32). Although China is not a democracy, not yet at least, the country is shifting towards it. However, as Mansfield and Snyder (1996) points out, it is precisely the transition era that China is currently experiencing which makes the prospect of a war becoming increasingly possible. They argue that stable countries, both autocracies and democracies, are generally less prone to wars.

Other factors that also shape U.S.-China relations are their shared interests in the region of East Asia. Robert J. Art (2007: p.33), identified six shared interests:

“First, preservation of U.S.-China mutually assured destruction; second, stability in the Taiwan Strait and a peaceful resolution of the Taiwan issue; third, the denuclearization and ultimate reunification of the Korean Peninsula; fourth, preservation of the U.S.-Japan alliance and the maintenance of Japan’s non-nuclear status; fifth, the peaceful settlement of China’s maritime disputes with its neighbors and the preservation of freedom of commercial navigation in South China Sea; and finally, the preservation of economic openness in East Asia.”

The factors that are mentioned are generally self-explanatory. As the Cold War had shown, a military stalemate would create a stable atmosphere because neither country would dare to attack the other, as it will lead to the destruction of both. Whether in the form of a fully independent Taiwan or not, a peaceful resolution on Taiwan will benefit the two countries. One nuclear neighbor cannot be good or any country, let alone two; and an unstable nuclear North Korea would also pose a threat to U.S. national security interests. Freedom of commercial navigation and preservation of economic openness also serve the economic interests of both countries.

In conclusion, there are many factors that shape the relationship between the emerging power and the current superpower. Some of those factors will swing the pendulum towards cooperation and harmonious relations; some of them will swing it away from harmony and, instead, swing it towards conflict and tense relations. The economic interdependence between the two countries and China’s shift to the tendency in adopting Western economic principles help ease the relationship. The fewer ideological differences that follow also help shape the relations; and similar point can be made regarding the shared interests in East Asia. The controversial factors that can spark direct conflict, on the other hand, include the Taiwan issue, China’s mission to further expand its influence, and China’s tainted reputation in the enforcement of human rights and the establishment of democracy.

The future of U.S.-China relations very much depends on the dynamics of these various factors. However, in this era it is likely that there is only one determining factor. As President Clinton’s 1992 campaign message would say: “It’s the economy, stupid.” Amidst this global financial crisis, no country would risk its economic interests over its foreign policy or national security interests, not even the two largest economies in the world. The economic relations that the two countries have would be too valuable to risk, thus it will restrain them from taking steps that could potentially spark a direct conflict. On the other hand, there is the golden lesson of the Cold War: everything can change in an instant if either side decides to undergo fundamental changes. If the U.S. or China, or even both, albeit unlikely, undergo significant changes in their foreign policy agenda, both the most optimistic and the most pessimistic predictions can actually become a reality. Because, as Friedberg (2005: p.45) puts it, “there is every reason to hope that U.S.-China relations will follow a smoother and more peaceful course. But neither history nor theory can provide any assurances that it will be so.”



REFERENCES

Art, Robet J. “Agreeing to Agree (and Disagree)”. The National Interest. May/June 2007; 89; Academic Research Library. pp. 33-39.

Central Intelligence Agency. (2009). The World Factbook – China. Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html

Friedberg, Aaron L. “The Future of U.S.-China Relations: Is Conflict Inevitable?” International Security. Vol. 30, No. 2, Fall 2005, pp. 7-45.

Jervis, Robert. (1991). The Future of World Politics: Will it Resemble the Past? Massachusetts: Defense and Arms Control Studies Program, Center for International Studies, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Johnston, Alastair I., Ross, Robert S. (1999). Engaging China: The Management of an Emerging Power. London and New York: Routledge.

Lampton, David M. (2001). Same Bed, Different Dreams. California: University of California Press.

Mansfield, Edward D., Snyder, Jack. “Democratization and the Danger of War”. International Security. Vol. 21, No. 2, Fall 1996, pp. 180-209.

PRC General Administration of Customs. (2009). China’s Customs Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.uschina.org/statistics/tradetable.html

Ross, Robert S. “The 1995-96 Taiwan Strait Confrotation: Coercion, Credibility, and the Use of Force”. International Security. Vol. 25, No. 2, Autumn 2000, pp. 87-123.

Zagoria, Donald S. (2004). The Taiwan Challenge, Remarks from Director of the National Committee on American Foreign Policy’s Project on U.S.-China-Taiwan Relations. Retrieved from http://asiasociety.org/speeches/zagoria04.html

The Prospects of US-Muslim Relations under the Obama Era

The eight years of George W. Bush in the White House has left the relations between the United States and the Muslim world seriously strained. Following the September 11 attacks, President Bush announced a new phase of U.S. foreign policy: the global war on terror. United States soon engaged in wars in two Middle East countries, Iraq and Afghanistan. During the remaining period, however, the lines have somewhat blurred as the global war on terror becoming more and more associated with Islamic religion in general. As a result, anti-American sentiments have further gained prominence. At the end of President Bush’s final term, the image of the United States among the international world as a whole has been tarnished.

The emergence of Barack Hussein Obama in the U.S. political landscape has given hope that the U.S. can regain its status as the leader of the world. Even before elected, according to a Gallup Poll, world citizens prefer him to his Republican rival, a Vietnam War veteran Senator John McCain. Moreover, Obama was favoured in key Muslim countries such as Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, Palestinian territories, Kuwait, and Turkey. To the Muslim world, his emergence has also given hope that the relations between the religion and the United States can be repaired as Obama himself has ties to Islam, in the form of a Muslim turned Atheist father and his experience of living in a Muslim-majority country of Indonesia in his childhood days. It remains to be seen whether President Obama can deliver in rebuilding America’s image in the world and among the Muslim world. This essay attempts to spot the indicators of America’s standing under the Obama administration in the issues related to the Muslim world, such as the Middle East, and its standing on the Muslim world as a whole.

In his inaugural address, President Obama featured the issue of America’s strained relations with the Muslim world:

“To the Muslim world, we seek a new way forward, based on mutual interest and mutual respect. To those leaders around the globe who seek to sow conflict, or blame their society's ills on the West, know that your people will judge you on what you can build, not what you destroy.”

This very much hinted his view that he is indeed committed in restoring America’s image. The fact that Obama addressed the message in his inaugural address should highlight how significant he views the issue is, with the international world’s attention centred upon him at that moment. Past inaugural addresses have produced famous lines, such as President Kennedy’s "ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country" and President Reagan’s “government is not the solution to our problem; government is the problem”. Obama’s message may not be as memorable, but it will certainly go down in the Muslim world. However, this sense of optimism is still treated with caution as the momentum could easily fade away if he fails to deliver on actual policies.

During his first trip overseas, after attending the G20 summit at London, President Obama made a first visit to a Muslim-majority country in the form of Turkey. In his address to the Turkish parliament, President Obama basically proposed his plans on the Middle East. He elaborated on the issue of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, the threat of a nuclear Iran, the importance of an unfriendly Iraq for terrorists, and the battle against Al-Qaeda in Pakistan and Afghanistan. He also emphasised that despite the recent strained relations between the two countries, Turkey remains a critical ally to the United States. President Obama further reinforced his case to regain the trust of the Muslim community with a strong message:

“So let me say this as clearly as I can: The United States is not, and will never be, at war with Islam. In fact, our partnership with the Muslim world is critical not just in rolling back the violent ideologies that people of all faiths reject, but also to strengthen opportunity for all its people. I also want to be clear that America's relationship with the Muslim community, the Muslim world, cannot, and will not, just be based upon opposition to terrorism.”

This statement marks a stark difference to the Bush administration’s “either you are with us or against us”. In this statement, President Obama mentioned that a good relationship between the U.S. and the Muslim community is vital in its mission to fight the networks of terrorism. The main reason behind the terrorist attacks against the United States and other Western countries, organised by hardline fundamentalists, is to become a symbolic act of anti-American sentiments or anti-Western culture and influence. As Makdisi (2002: p.556) argues:

“September 11 is ultimately a mutilated and hijacked expression of immense Arab anger at the United States. … [B]in Ladin is a manifestation of a deeply troubled Arab world beset by … a rise of Islamic fundamentalism.”

Therefore, mutual understanding between the U.S. and the Muslim community is key to prevent a meaningful resistance towards the west.

Also in the Turkish parliamentary address, President Obama reaffirmed the America’s standing on the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, which is a two-state solution. Upon speaking of the common goals the United States and Turkey share to face the challenges before them while advancing peace, President Obama declared:

“In the Middle East, we share the goal of a lasting peace between Israel and its neighbours. Let me be clear: The United States strongly supports the goal of two states, Israel and Palestine, living side by side in peace and security.”

The president also insisted that both the United States and Turkey has been a friend to Israel and both countries seek a future establishment of a Palestinian state. He went on to call for the rejection the use of terror as means of achieving these shared goals.

President Obama made a point that it is especially important for Turkey to advance peace in the Middle East by attempting to contain Iran from pursuing its nuclear ambitions, as Turkey lives in a “difficult region”. He stressed that the region has already suffered enough violence and enough hatred, that it does not need a race to acquire a powerful tools of destruction. The president also stressed that the United States seeks engagement with Iran and hope that the country can play its role in the international community to advance prosperity and peace.

President Obama also reminds the Turkish parliament that both countries have strong interests in a secure and united Iraq. The president plans to end the war responsibly and to continue to work with Iraq, along with Turkey, to establish a new discussion that reconciles whatever differences lie between them. However, President Obama also reminded that both the U.S. and Turkey, even Iraq itself, face a common threat of terrorist networks, especially in the form of Al-Qaeda.

On late March 2009, President Obama announced a “new strategy” for Afghanistan and Pakistan. He first explained America’s standing on the general issue of fighting the forces of terrorism. The terrorists who planned and supported the September 11 attacks, Al-Qaeda, are still active in Pakistan and Afghanistan. Intelligence sources have warned that Al-Qaeda is also planning more attacks from its safe haven in Pakistan. Moreover, if the government of Afghanistan falls under the control of the Taliban once more and allows Al-Qaeda to go unchallenged, the country will be a base for terrorists who want to take as many lives as possible. President Obama also emphasised the point that the problem is far from a domestic one. He insisted that the international order security has been challenged, as he points to terrorist attacks in London, Bali, Islamabad, and Kabul, all attacks are linked with Al-Qaeda. “The safety of people around the world is at stake,” the president declared.

Thus, the United States has a goal of denying Al Qaeda a safe haven in Pakistan or Afghanistan, the president stated. Throughout the presidential campaign, President Obama has an advantage from his opponents; he was the only candidate who had opposed what later proved to be an unpopular war in Iraq from the beginning. The president reaffirmed that standing:

“To focus on the greatest threat to our people, America must no longer deny resources to Afghanistan because of the war in Iraq. To enhance the military, governance and economic capacity of Afghanistan and Pakistan, we have to marshal international support.”

President Obama insisted that marshalling international support is key, and that the world should stand behind the mission to enhance military, governance, and economic capacity of Afghanistan and Pakistan as the world as a whole will become more secure from the terrorist network. The president pointed out that Al-Qaeda and other extremists also pose a serious threat to Pakistan as they have killed many Pakistani soldiers and police, assassinated Benazir Bhutto, blown up buildings, derailed foreign investment, and threatened the country’s stability from within.

Another strategy shift the president proposed is to put the Afghanistan mission more emphasis on training. The security forces of the Afghan people will be strengthened, both from its number and by special training. The training can now finally take place, as the resources needed are no longer denied because of the war in Iraq. Additional troops are also to be expected, as President Obama has ordered the deployment of 17,000 troops and will deploy another 4,000 troops later on this year. The president will also seek additional troops from NATO to ensure that building an Afghan army of 134,000 and a police force of 82,000, all trained by U.S. and NATO troops, would be possible by the year 2011. This would be the exit strategy for the United States as the Afghans are expected to be able to take responsibility for their security.

Other strategy shifts include investing more in the Afghan people. President Obama stated that the Americans should help the Afghan government serve its people by advancing security, opportunity, and justice, as the investments relieve the burden on the troops and contribute to the security of the American people directly. The president also emphasised on reconciliation among former adversaries in order to support a unified Afghanistan. President Obama pointed out to the success of a similar mission in Iraq, and that a similar process will be pursued, while understanding that Afghanistan is a very different country. The president stated that the effectiveness of these strategies will be reviewed, and therefore subject to adjustments in order to make significant progress towards accomplishing the goals.

Finally, President Obama reaffirmed America’s standing and spirit to achieve these goals; to offer a future of hope and opportunity to the people of Afghanistan and Pakistan and at the same time secure the safety of the American people. The president declared: “Because the United States of America stands for peace and security, justice and opportunity. That is who we are, and that is what history calls on us to do once more.”

On early May 2009, President Obama has announced that he will deliver a major speech on U.S. relations with the Muslim world on a visit to Egypt. The president has chosen Egypt because the country is at the “heart of the Arab world”. This shows once again the commitment that the Obama administration possesses to fix U.S. relations with the Muslim community. However, not all factions are optimistic about President Obama’s next move. The Muslim Brotherhood had perceived the planned speech to be a part of the U.S. agenda to further its pro-Israeli stance.

In conclusion, the Obama administration seemed determined fix America’s image abroad to undo the damages done by the Bush administration. President Obama’s messages have been consistent: the U.S. is not at war against Islam and it wants to resolidify its relationship with the religion in order to face challenges that face both of them, which is the threat of a global terrorist network. The policy changes at this stage, however, are only reflected on President Obama’s messages and haven’t truly been realised in the real policies. However, that is to be expected, as the Obama administration has only been in power for just over a hundred days. The American people and the Muslim community have reasons to be optimistic with President Obama, as he had already fulfilled some of his core campaign messages such as the call to the closing down of Guantanamo Bay and major economic reforms in the form of The American Recovery and Reinvestment Plan. For now, it will be a case of wait and see because nothing can provide any assurances of the outcome of the Obama administration. For now, at least, America is slowly climbing back to its stature as a leader of the free world.



REFERENCES

BBC News. May 8, 2009. “Obama to address Muslims in Egypt”. Retrieved from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/8041226.stm

CNNPolitics.com. May 8, 2009. “Obama to address Muslim relations in Egypt speech”. Retrieved from http://edition.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/05/08/obama.egypt/index.html

Gallup Poll (2008). “Obama Favored in Key Muslim Countries”. Retrieved from http://www.gallup.com/poll/111235/Obama-Favored-Key-Muslim-Countries.aspx

Gallup Poll. (2008). “World Citizens Prefer Obama to McCain by More Than 3-to-1”. Retrieved from http://www.gallup.com/poll/111253/World-Citizens-Prefer-Obama-McCain-More-Than-3to1.aspx

Kurth, James. (2002). “Confronting the unipolar moment: The American Empire and Islamic Terrorism”. Current History. Dec 2002, pp. 403-8.

Makdisi, Ussama. (2002). “’Anti-Americanism’ in the Arab World: An Interpretation of a Brief History”. The Journal of American History. Vol 85, No 2, Sept 2002, pp. 538-557.
Ronald Reagan Presidential Library. “Inaugural Address January 20, 1981”. Retrieved from http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1981/12081a.htm

The White House, About The White House, Presidents. “Biography of John F. Kennedy”. Retrieved from http://www.whitehouse.gov/about/presidents/JohnFKennedy/
The White House, The Briefing Room. (2009). “President Barack Obama’s Inaugural Address”. Retrieved from http://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/President_Barack_Obamas_Inaugural_Address/

The White House Office of the Press Secretary. (2009). “Remarks by President Obama on a New Strategy for Afghanistan and Pakistan”. Retrieved from http://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/Remarks-by-the-President-on-a-New-Strategy-for-Afghanistan-and-Pakistan/

The White House Office of the Press Secretary. (2009). “Remarks by President Obama to the Turkish Parliament”. Retrieved from http://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/Remarks-By-President-Obama-To-The-Turkish-Parliament/

World Bulletin. May 9, 2009. “Brotherhoods say Obama's Egypt visit keeps Muslim world divided”. Retrieved from http://www.worldbulletin.net/news_detail.php?id=41497

Tsunami: Human Context Disaster?

There have been many cases of tsunami-related disasters in the past. Hundreds thousands of lives have been lost. As for the survivors, their lives have been significantly disrupted, if not all together ruined. Houses, farms, buildings, roads; all destroyed with a matter of minutes through a surge of ocean waves. This left us an intriguing question: had the tsunami happened elsewhere, in places where there are no vital human activities, would it still cause a massive devastation to the lives of many? This essay tries to look at the question and discusses the possibility of whether tsunamis only become disasters because of the human context in which they occur. To put things further in perspective, this essay also tries to look at past examples of the occurrence of tsunamis.

To understand the topic question more comprehensively, the definition and the concept of disaster must be fully grasped first. What is a disaster? One definition perceives it as “a sudden event, such as an accident or natural catastrophe, that causes great damage or loss of life” (The New Oxford American Dictionary, 2005). Smith & Petley (2009) define disasters as “social phenomena that occur when a community suffers exceptional levels of disruption and loss due to natural processes or technological accidents.” They also state that a disaster is the realisation of a hazard, which is events or processes that pose major threats to human life and economic assets. These definitions show a trend; that disaster is an event, or a series of events, which resulted in damages of the aspects of human life, such as the economy, and the loss in human lives itself. One point that should also be noted is that these losses must be significant, as words like “great” and “major” can be found in these definitions. Something cannot be perceived as a disaster, therefore, if the consequent casualties are not fatal or even absent, and there are no major damages conflicted to the aspects of human life.

The nature of tsunami must also be understood. “Tsunami” is a Japanese word, which consists of two characters: tsu, meaning “harbor”, and nami, meaning “wave”. According to Kaitoku (2008), tsunamis are “a series of massive waves created by an underwater disturbance such as an earthquake, landslide, volcanic eruption, or meteorite.” Generally, tsunamis are also known as seismic sea waves. “Tidal wave”, therefore, is not the correct term, as the waves are not caused by tides (USGS, 2008). USGS also define tsunamis as ocean waves that are caused by large earthquakes and landslides.

Tsunamis are often generated by earthquakes that were caused by the movement of oceanic and continental plates. In an explanation provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration or the NOAA (2009), it is stated that tsunamis often occur in the Pacific Ocean, because it is where the dense oceanic plates slide under the lighter continental plates. The waves are generated through the vertical movement of the seafloor that resulted a quick transfer of energy from solid earth to the ocean. The reason why tsunami waves can reach several metres in height is because unlike typical wind-driven waves that are only a minor disturbance on the sea surface, the energy of tsunami waves extends to the bottom of the ocean (Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, 2008).

Judging from its impacts, tsunami is one of the worst natural disasters that can occur because of its sheer magnitude; the scale of destruction caused by a tsunami is often enormous. Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (2008) states that “although infrequent, tsunamis are among the most terrifying and complex physical phenomena and have been responsible for great loss of life and extensive destruction to property.” According to NOAA, in just over one and a half century or since 1850, tsunamis have been responsible for the loss of over 420,000 lives and billions of dollars of damage to both coastal structure and habitats. It is reasonable to suggest, therefore, that tsunamis have significant impacts on aspects of human life, such as the economic aspect or the social aspect.

However, had the conditions and the contributing factors in which a tsunami occurred been different, tsunamis may not result in significant impacts on the human life after all. For example, had a tsunami with the magnitude of 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami occurred somewhere near Antarctica, the losses suffered may not be as great, if any, if compared to when it occurred near Aceh. Obviously, it is due to the fact that there are no vital human activities in that region, as there are no permanent human residents. Another example would be if the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami still happened near Aceh but that the island of Sumatra or the province of Aceh had been unpopulated, the following impacts would also not be as great compared to the actual conditions mainly because there would be nothing to be destroyed. There would be no houses, no roads, no infrastructures, no economic assets, and no developments to be destroyed. Thus, a tsunami cannot be seen as a disaster where the communities in the areas involved do not suffer “exceptional levels of disruptions and losses”.

The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami is seen as one of the worst disasters in history not because how big the earthquake and the tsunami were, although they were indeed massive, but primarily because of the vast scale of destruction. A Risk Management Solutions or RMS report (2006) classified the tsunami as moderate hazard, meaning that the disaster is only likely to occur once in every 500 to 2.000 years. On Sunday, 26 December 2004, a 9.0 Richter scale magnitude earthquake struck near the west coast of northern Sumatra, only 250 km off the major city of the densely populated Banda Aceh. It is the fourth largest earthquake in the world since 1900 (USGS, 2008). It was felt mainly in Sumatra and it was also felt in parts of Bangladesh, India, Maldives, Myanmar, Singapore, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. The subsequent tsunami claimed about 227.898 lives and displaced approximately 1.7 million people.

The damages recorded are devastating. A UNEP environmental assessment (2006) states that buildings, industrial sites, and environmental infrastructure, such as water and sanitation systems, were heavily damaged. Public health and safety are threatened by hazardous debris, as much of the debris is toxic. The ways of life of the people were heavily impacted. As the tsunami struck developing countries, many of the victims were from the lower class who mainly depended on natural resources and the ecosystem. For example, as the affected areas were coastal areas, naturally many victims depended on fisheries for a living. According to the RMS report (2006), overall economic losses from the disaster are estimated at $10 billion, with 75% of the loss attributed to the damage in Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. Indonesia alone suffered a $4.5 billion loss, including almost the entire GDP of Aceh. The tsunami destroyed virtually every village, town, road, and bridge built at below 10 m elevation along the western coastline of Aceh. On the southern coasts of Sri Lanka and along the coastline of Thailand, hotels and other tourist resorts suffered major damage. The tsunami proves that disasters “represent a huge risk for the poor as they can undo development gains and accumulated wealth in developing countries in an instance” (Chen et al., 2005). This leaves developing countries more vulnerable to the prospect of disaster, as they are unlikely to rebuild as fast as and as efficient as developed countries.

One factor that allows such scale of destruction to take place is because earthquakes themselves are generally unpredictable, according to International Research Institute’s Scientific Background on the Indian Ocean Earthquake and Tsunami (2005). However, once they are detected it was possible to issue a 3 hours notice of a potential tsunami. Unfortunately, none of the countries that are most heavily affected, such as Indonesia, Thailand, India, and Sri Lanka, had a tsunami warning mechanism. There is nothing unusual, as it was very unlikely for the Indian Ocean region would be hit by a tsunami, let alone on such a magnitude.

The absence of losses resulting from a tsunami, both in the form of human life and aspects of it, and its lack of ability to cause meaningful disruption to the lives of many constitute a tsunami to be viewed merely as a natural phenomenon rather than a disaster. According to the data obtained from National Geophysical Data Center database, in the last 100 years since 1908, in western Indonesia alone there are 49 tsunami events recorded. However, tsunamis rarely made the headlines in Indonesia, prior to the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, because only ten of the recorded tsunami claimed lives. The rest are not part of the mainstream discussion because they are simply regarded as natural phenomena.

In conclusion, tsunamis have often been the cause of major disruption to the world community as hundreds thousands of lives were lost and lands destroyed as a result of the seismic sea waves. However, past occurrences show that the main factor for a tsunami to be truly considered as a disaster is its ability to cause losses of lives and significant damages to the various aspects of human life, such as the economy. Otherwise, tsunamis are only viewed as natural phenomena that do not translate into a disaster. Therefore, tsunamis only become disasters because of the human context in which they occur.



REFERENCES

Chen, Robert S., Deichmann, Uwe, Dilley, Maxx. (2005). Natural Disaster Hotspots: A Global Risk Analysis. World Bank Publications.

Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission. (2008). Tsunami Glossary, 2008.
Paris: UNESCO. IOC Technical Series, 85. (English.)

International Research Institute. (2005). Scientific Background on the Indian Ocean Earthquake and Tsunami. Retrieved from http://iri.columbia.edu/~lareef/tsunami/#Records_from_the_US_Geological_Survey
Kaitoku, Tammy. (2008). “What are Tsunamis, and What causes them?” in International Tsunami Information Centre. Retrieved from http://ioc3.unesco.org/itic/categories.php?category_no=4
McKean, Erin (editor). (2005). The New Oxford American Dictionary, Second Edition. Oxford University Press.

National Geophysical Data Center. (2009). “Tsunami Events Full Search, sort by Date, Country”. Retrieved from http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/nndc/struts/form?t=101650&s=70&d=7

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (2009). “The Tsunami Story”. Retrieved from http://www.tsunami.noaa.gov/tsunami_story.html

Risk Management Solutions, Inc. (2006). Managing Tsunami Risk in the Aftermath
of the 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake & Tsunami. Retrieved from http://www.rms.com/Publications/IndianOceanTsunamiReport.pdf

Smith, Kevin & Petley, David N. (2009). Environmental Hazards: Assessing risks and reducing disaster. New York: Routledge.

United Nations Environment Programme. (2006). After the Tsunami: Rapid Environmental Assessment. Retrieved from http://www.unep.org/tsunami/reports/TSUNAMI_INDONESIA_LAYOUT.pdf

United States Geological Survey. (2005). Retrieved from http://earthquake.usgs.gov/eqcenter/eqinthenews/2004/usslav/
United States Geological Survey. (2008). “Could It Happen Here?” Retrieved from http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/tsunami/CCIH.html

The Relationship Between Economic Growth & Environmental Sustainability

The debate concerning the conflict between economic growth and environmental sustainability is amplified now more than ever; the recent global financial crisis has threatened to divert the world’s attention from solving the climate crisis. An extreme dilemma of saving the world from economic meltdown or environmental destruction is not an easy one to address. Developing countries, who are more sensitive to these issues than developed countries due to the dire need of economic growth and conservation of the degrading environment, face the dilemma with even more challenges. Businesses argue that significant, swift steps must be taken to ease the impact of the financial crisis, even if it means to delay progress in environmental conservation. Environmentalists, on the other hand, argue that the climate crisis cannot be solved overnight and that it is the most important, urgent issue in this era. While it is important to recognize both as core, crucial issues that affect millions of lives, one issue simply cannot be solved at the expense of the other. This essay attempts to analyse the importance of economic growth and environmental sustainability in relation to one another and how less developed countries deal with these issues.

Environmental destruction happens gradually and it is irreversible. The planet does not warm by 0.5 degree Celsius in one day, the weather does not make or break the crops overnight, nor the level of ocean rises within one week. Environmental problems are long-term problems that require long-term solutions; environmental sustainability provides just that. Commissioner for Environmental Sustainability (2006) refers the term ‘environmental sustainability’ as the “ability to maintain the qualities that are valued in the physical environment.” The qualities include the capabilities that natural environment has to maintain living conditions for people and other species, aspects of renewable resources, functioning of the society, and the quality of life. The key words are ‘to maintain’; steps taken to ensure environmental sustainability, therefore, should be seen as long-term solutions that even if short-term complications arise, it is worth the trouble.

Sceptics argue that converting fossil fuel based energy resources into renewable ones are not worth the cost, especially when the science is claimed to be uncertain. As Hanson (2006) noted, in the issue of climate change, the sceptics’ view is that if there is no “absolute confidence how much the planet will warm and what the impacts will be, so the reasoning goes, perhaps we’re better off not committing ourselves to costly reductions in greenhouse gas emissions.” The view in itself is narrow-minded; it does not take account other costs that may arise from committing to produce fossil fuel based energy. This, according to Guntensperger (2007), is a form of externalising costs that should be internalised. He added the examples of the costs that should be taken into account when analysing the cost of burning fossil fuel are:
“[T]he proportion of corporate taxes that goes to environmental rehabilitation; the additional cost of employee health insurances; the cost of employee turnover due to environmentally caused illness; the cost of maintenance and repair of atmospheric damage to buildings and other facilities.”

If these costs are internalised, then the cost of using fossil fuel as a source of energy is as, if not more, costly compared to switching to renewable resources.

One issue that should be elaborated further is whether there is a dilemma between economic growth and environmental sustainability in the first place. The mere notion that depicted the conversion to alternative energy as costly, as already discussed previously, is not enough to pose such an extreme dilemma. However, the rule does not apply in both ways; the efforts that are taken to ensure environmental sustainability are not necessarily hurting, instead, it might even help the economy, whereas the economic growth that focuses on maximising the use of non-renewable resources can hurt the environment. Gore (2008) argues that the creation of green jobs, employment in alternative energy sector, can boost the economy. He also mentioned that “economists around the spectrum – including Martin Feldstein and Lawrence Summers – agree that large and rapid investments in a job-intensive infrastructure initiative is the best way to revive our economy in a quick and sustainable way.” This leads to a fresh perspective that protecting the planet while ensuring economic growth is possible.

Less developed countries have more challenges to cope with both economic growth and environmental sustainability. Factors that are influential to the ways developing countries handle these issues include the population explosion and corruption. According to Nielsen (2005), the population in richer countries is almost stable whereas in developing countries it will increase. The ratio of poor to rich will be 7 to 1 in a few decades. This puts extreme pressure on the environment, Nielsen argues. Moreover, the dire need of economic growth is more crucial and urgent due to the population explosion. As a result, developing countries that possess natural resources, for example Indonesia, exploit the environment in order to fulfil the economic needs. Indonesia is the number one greenhouse gas polluter country from deforestation and the fastest forest destroyer in the world. The country destroys an area of forest equivalent to 300 football fields every hour. (Greenpeace, 2007). There also appears to be a correlation between environmental sustainability and corruption, shown by the Environmental Performance Index (2008) and Corruption Perception Index (2008). Developing countries such as China, India, Indonesia, who are all among the bottom 50 countries in EPI, seem to fare little better in CPI, who sits at 72nd, 85th, and 126th respectively. Corruption leads to the neglect of both economic growth and environmental sustainability, as elected officials embezzle the state budget that can and should be used to improve efforts in the conservation of environment.

In conclusion, both economic growth and environmental sustainability are important issues that affect the lives of millions. One issue should not be solved at the expense of the other. However, it is possible for efforts that promote environmental sustainability to boost the economy whereas it is very unlikely for economic growth that is driven through maximising the use of non-renewable resources is going to help protect the planet. Promoting environmental sustainability is a long-term solution that may cause short-term complications. It is important, however, to see that these solutions are worth the effort in the long run. Sceptics falsely believe that the cost of converting into alternative energy is significantly higher than the cost of burning fossil fuel because they externalise costs that should be internalised, such as taxes, health insurances, and maintenance. Less developed countries are faced with issues such as population explosion and corruption that have negative impacts on their efforts of achieving economic growth and environmental sustainability.



REFERENCES

Commissioner for Environmental Sustainability. 2006. What is Environmental Sustainability?
(http://www.ces.vic.gov.au/CES/wcmn301.nsf/childdocs/-441BB07721D61152CA256F250028C5FB?open)

Greenpeace. 2007. “Indonesia poised for World Record as fastest destroyer of forests”. (http://www.greenpeace.org/seasia/en/news/indonesia-fastest-forest-destroyer)

Gore, Al. 2008. “The Climate for Change”. The New York Times. 9 November.

Guntensperger, Patrick. 2007. “Global warming: An accounting error?” The Jakarta Post. 6 May.

Hanson, Robert. 2006. The Rough Guide to Climate Change. New York: Rough Guides Ltd.

Nielsen, Ron. 2005. ‘In a Nutshell’ from The Little Green Handbook: A Guide to Critical
Environmental Trends. Scribe, Carlton North, Victoria. pp. 238-247.

Transparency International. 2008. Corruption Perceptions Index. (http://www.transparency.org/news_room/in_focus/2008/cpi2008/cpi_2008_table)

Yale University, Columbia University. 2008. Environmental Performance Index. (http://epi.yale.edu/CountryScores)

Key Elements of a Feature Article

This essay analyses the key elements of a feature article that is published on the 23rd November 2008 edition of Jakarta Globe. The article is entitled “The Dirty Business of Beauty” and written by Dewi Kurniati.

The writer begins the article with an anecdote of a woman nicknamed Sari to describe the unwanted effects of a plastic surgery. The anecdote is really good because it explicitly reveals the direction of the story, which is to show that plastic surgeries can, and sometimes do, get horribly wrong.

Sari (not her real name) sat alone in the dimly lit waiting room of a plastic surgery clinic at the state-run Cipto Mangunkusomo Hospital in Jakarta, her face covered with sunglasses and a surgical mask. When I approached, she pulled down the mask, revealing the truth about her face.

The anecdote is a good example of showing the details to paint an image of the despair of a plastic surgery victim, instead of telling the image itself. The words “revealing the truth about her face” point to a grim image; we can understand that there is something wrong about “her face” even though the writer does not specifically mention what it is that went wrong. Although it would be better for the writer to add details of the face’s feature. For example, something like “revealing the truth about her face, filled with burning red spots and a scarred nose.”

In the next paragraph, the writer uses a quotation that confirms our understanding that there is something wrong.

“My friend convinced me to have a silicone injection in a beauty salon. She said it would make me look more beautiful. I wanted a prominent chin, but instead it turned out to be horrible,” Sari said, pointing to the two post-operative stitch lines on her chin. “That is why I ended up in here.”

Sari’s words “it turned out to be horrible” confirms the grim image we have about her face and the writer’s description of “pointing to the two-post operative stitch lines on her chin” is also a good example of showing the details. Another good example is shown in the third paragraph.

The silicone inflamed Sari’s chin, causing her face to swell. Doctors in the clinic have had to drain the silicone three times so far, costing Sari Rp 60 million ($4,981) — more than five times what she would have paid had she gone to a licensed plastic surgeon in the first place. And the doctors say the silicone will never fully be removed, which could mean a lifetime of corrective procedures.

The writer emphasises the point that plastic surgeries can also get financially wrong by telling “more than five times what she would have paid had she gone to a licensed plastic surgeon in the first place”, although the ideal approach would be to show the actual numbers of the cost.

Throughout the story, the writer uses the sub-heading format, describing clearly the focus of each part of the story. The first sub-heading is “booming business”, which explains that this part focuses on the current trend of plastic surgeries. Together with the following paragraphs, this sub-heading can also serve as a hook.

While Islam frowns on cosmetic surgery, Indonesia, despite having the largest Muslim population in the world, is seeing growing interest in aesthetic procedures. Whether it is for love, vanity or a desire to lure back a wandering husband, women often turn to surgery to give them what they believe nature has not provided.

But, as is often the case with booming but poorly regulated industries, illegal practitioners abound, preying on women who don’t know better or who are looking for bargain beauty.

It reveals the relevance of the issue to us: the very notion that the business of plastic surgery is “booming” in Indonesia is controversial and it is worsen by the point that the business is “poorly regulated” and the people involved in the business often lacks knowledge of it.

The writer has shown that she has done a bit of a research to bolster the point that there are many unwanted cases similar to Sari’s throughout the country by mentioning: A 2007 report released by the Indonesian Plastic Surgeons Association, or Perapi, listed 249 cases of plastic surgery malpractice in Indonesia, most involving botched facial procedures. The use of the following quotation also emphasised the point.
“I believe that this is only the tip of the iceberg,” said Teddy OH Prasetyono, Perapi secretary general. “Each year, we have more victims of illegal practices coming to us. There are only a few cases recorded. There are thousands more out there.”

The writer uses another simple anecdote to show the point of view of a woman who “doesn’t know better or who are looking for bargain beauty”: “My husband had threatened to divorce me if I didn’t fix it,” Clara said. “I thought it was going to be sexy when I agreed to the silicone injection. But it wasn’t for long.”

The second sub-heading, “fatal complications”, focuses on the worst effect of a plastic surgery, which is, quite obviously, death. This part shows the actual cases to buttress the point that things do get awfully wrong in plastic surgeries and it also shows the possible reasons behind those cases. This part also makes the point to discourage the use of plastic surgeries.

The writer tries to explain the scientific reason of the death through a quotation by an expert. The quotation also supports the notion that a lack of education can lead to fatal implications.

“These people [illegal practitioners] do not know what substance can be injected into the body. They shouldn’t even use needles in the first place,” he said.

The reasons of the negative effects of plastic surgeries are elaborated in this part. Among them is the lack of licensed plastic surgeons, the lack of education on the issue, the media’s portrayal of beauty, and the lack of self-esteem by the women who’s done plastic surgeries. Each of this reason has a quotation that supports it.

For example, a quotation by an expert that points the lack of self-esteem as one of the reasons said; “Even normal people are sometimes incapable of accepting their natural beauty”.

The part also brings up the contradiction of the issue by looking through the Islamic point of view on plastic surgeries. This point is supported by a quotation that said: “It always depends on the purpose, but in Islam, we only tolerate surgery for health reasons”.

How a story ends mainly shows the main message of the writer. It seems that the writer’s main message in this story is to discourage us from having plastic surgeries, as the writer closed the story with the reason why people usually have them in the first place.

Besides, if a woman wants to become more beautiful just to please other people, Prasetyono said, plastic surgery is not the answer. “For that, we have psychological counseling.”

The Role of Media Studies in Making Sense of Political, Economic, and Cultural Meaning of Everyday Life

We are living in the information age. The media has become an inherent part of today’s life. However, the effects that media have on our lives are not yet fully understood. The emergence of the oldest kind of mainstream media, the print, has only begun a little more than a century (Bazalgette, 2000). Social scientists are still observing the media as an effort to gain an understanding of the media’s role in today’s life and what effects, if any, it might have on the prominent areas of today. Subjects such as politics, economics, and culture are important, as the role we play in each subject is an inherent part of our lives; we are all citizens, consumers, and members of the society. This essay discusses the role of media studies in making sense of the political, economic, and cultural meaning of everyday life.

Media studies plays a significant role in determining the nature of democracy in a country; it equips the audience with a broad understanding that can help them make better decisions as citizens. Media studies acts as a bridge, as opposed to a window, between the citizens and the government. The media presents a particular view of the world to the audience. As Kilic (2003) argues, “media affect how we learn about our world and interact with one another.” Each form of media and media institutions has its own way of telling the world what the world looks like or, in other words, acts as its own window of the world. The study of the media, which mainly consists of analyses on its history and content, sees the larger context in which the media operates. It identifies the background information needed to understand the larger context of political news. It allows us to see the connections between one political event with another. It attempts to step back in order to see the bigger picture. The democratic values of a country are maintained when the audience, who also act as citizens, are able to see the bigger picture; they are able to make critical assessment of the government and can be more responsible in fulfilling their duties as citizens.

Media studies acts a tool to ensure that the decision making process in consuming, which relies heavily on the media, results the optimum solution. It may not be a coincidence that our ever-consuming society is living in the media age. It is also important to remember that the media itself is a business; it needs to make profit. As Wahl (1997) argues: “the mass media operate for profit, and they must present what the public will buy in order to ensure reasonable profits for themselves and their shareholders.” This means that whatever the media is presenting to the audience is very likely to be in accordance with its profit-making motives. Therefore, critical viewing is needed. As media studies attempts to see the bigger picture in the political world, it also sees the larger context of corporation world in the media. It is able to see who pays for the advertisements; it is able to see which particular product that has intense attention; it is able to see which products are widely used in the society and are doing well in the market. If the audience, who act as consumers, are aware of the factors influencing the media’s portrayal of various products, they are able to make more wise, effective decisions in consuming, instead of falling to the trap of the golden rule of profit-seeking media, which Michael Schudson pointed out in one of his media aphorisms: “buy me and you will overcome the anxieties I have just reminded you of.”

As for the cultural point of view, media studies helps us understand the cultural messages that circulate among the mainstream media. The media is both a culture and mirrors existing culture; it is influenced by existing cultures and influences other cultures. Media studies attempts to see this two-way relationship in a way that helps us better understand the values that exist in both cultures. This is partly due to the society’s excessive amount of hours tuning in, especially one particular demographic group, the youth. Graber (1980) found that an average American high school graduate spent more time in front of the television than in the classroom. One of the examples is the perception of beauty in the media and the society’s respond to it. The media has played a part in distorting the perception of beauty in women as it portrays slim models with extremely white, clean pimple-free faces and fabulous long hair. Although this stereotyping falsely represents the majority of women, the society responds. According to Media Awareness Network (2008), in 2002, researchers from Flinder University found that Australian girls who watched television commercials featuring underweight models lost self-confidence and became more dissatisfied with their own bodies. Predictably, they also found that girls who spent the most time and effort on their appearance suffered the greatest loss in confidence. This particularly shows that the media does play a significant role in affecting the perception of beauty in girls. Media studies looks on these kinds of statistics and is able to remind us once again the importance of being a critical audience of the mainstream media.

In conclusion, the role of media studies in making sense of political, economic, and cultural meanings is to provide the bigger picture in which we can make a critical assessment of the media and make the most out of it. In the political perspective, media studies play an important role in maintaining the democracy of a country as it provides the citizens with a broad understanding that helps them in making more responsible decisions as citizens. From the economic standpoint, media studies act as a tool to ensure that we can make the optimum decisions in consuming and helps us to avoid the mainstream media trap of “buy me and you will overcome the things I have just reminded you of.” In the cultural point of view, media studies emphasises the significance of being a critical audience of the media as it helps us identify the cultural messages that circulate among the mainstream media.



REFERENCES

Bazalgette, G. 2000. “Why Media Studies is Worthwile” in D. Fleming (ed.), Formations. A 21st Century Media Studies Textbook. Manchester: Manchester University Press.

Graber, Doris. 1980. Mass Media and American Politics. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press.

Kilic, Zeynep. 2003. “Mass Media & Society: A Sociological Perspective on Media.” (http://www.public.asu.edu/~zeyno217/365/notes1.html)

Media Awareness Network. 2000. “Media and Girls”. (http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/issues/stereotyping/women_and_girls/women_girls.cfm)

Wahl, Otto F. 1997. Media Madness: Public Images of Mental Illness. Rutgers University Press.

How Mass Communications Transformed the Temporal & Social Foundations of the Social Sphere

Humans communicate within their social sphere. Social interactions were once limited to one’s own environment. Humans relied heavily in face-to-face interaction with their daily surroundings as their primary form of communication. However, the introduction of mass communication has lead to a change in forms of communication. The purpose of this essay is to discuss the ways mass communication transformed the temporal and social foundations of the social sphere. Mass communication has altered the nature of social interaction by expanding the scope of social sphere and increasing the quality of communication.

The media have diminished the distance between the sender and the receiver along with its difficulties. The concept of mass communication itself is to broadcast a message to a mass, which is a large number of people. Meyrowitz (1997) argues that “electronic media bring information and experience to everyplace from everyplace.” This is true in the sense that with the media, the idea is instead of people having to go to certain places in order to receive the message, it is the message that will reach the mass. In the modern world, although this advantage may have been taken for granted, it is vital to the quality of communication. At a time of globalisation when information needs to be spread to many places, at a time when the people have been increasingly mobile, at a time when the society faces a global crisis such as climate change, which requires cooperation from various nations around the world to take immediate action, this advantage is crucial. The media have helped to eliminate the problems that are caused by the distance between the sender and the receiver.

Although telephone generally may not be considered as a mass communication medium, it plays a significant role in influencing the nature of mass communication. Betteridge (1997) stated that “the radio and television phone-in render the telephone an overt player in mass communication.” The format of talk shows or quiz shows in the radio and the television allows the viewer watching at home to give comments or feedbacks by calling in to the studio while the show is being broadcasted live. As a result, the telephone has become a form of mass communication because the viewers who make the call send their message not only to the studio or the show itself but also to the audience. A United States artist Andy Warhol once predicted that “in the future everyone will be famous for fifteen minutes.” Although telephone calls do not usually last for fifteen minutes, he got it right. The format has influenced mass communication in the sense that it changes of its distinctions that, according to Thompson (1988), it does not offer the opportunity of immediate feedback.

The change also means that telephone promotes the value of democracy by promoting the freedom of the speech. Although broadcasting institutions would normally screen the calls, it is still more democratic than not being able to respond at all. Moreover, in talk shows that involve political discussions, people can now express their opinions about certain political figures or how to handle certain national issues while at the same time their voices are also heard by other people. This form of feedback can be more effective than other forms of feedback such as writing letters to respond the editorial column of newspapers. Because in radio or television shows, instead of only giving comments, the audience can also engage in a discussion that can give them a better understanding of the issue itself. Telephone promotes the freedom of the speech by allowing people to be heard not only by a single recipient but also to a mass of audience.

Ritual dimension of communication is affected significantly by mass communication. Carey (1985) described the ritual view of communication as “directed not toward the extension of messages in space but toward the maintenance of society in time.” He used the example of the ritual act of reading newspaper. He argues that news writing or reading is a ritual act and that what is exposed to the public is not only information but also “a portrayal of contending forces in the world.” This means that the ritual dimension of communication does not describe communication as merely a process of sending and receiving information, but it also involves in the interpretation of message. Societies will continuously engage in activities that attempt to make sense of the world and mass communication is involved in such activities. Television, for example, presents various kinds of views of the world in the form of movies, news coverage, situation comedies, music videos, talk shows, and documentaries. Each of this form gives the audience different points of views that can help them better understand the world. Mass communication helps the society in its ritual acts to interpret the world.

The media have widened the range of our social environments in which we communicate. Betteridge (1997) argues that “telecommunication and broadcasting transform both how people communicate, who they communicate with, and what they communicate about in the real world of their daily lives.” Had it not been for the media, we would be isolated from the outside world; it has introduced us to a world beyond our own. The media have given us information and knowledge that can be translated into a cultural literacy. Cultural literacy is “familiarity with the rules and conventions of a culture” (Schirato & Yell, 1996). By having cultural literacy, it means that people can understand more about a culture so they can find the ways to communicate in that culture effectively. As we understand more cultures, we can be involved in more social environments. As a result, we can communicate in a much larger scope and also expand the subject of discussion at the same time. The media allows societies to gain knowledge about various kinds of cultures. It will lead them to having cultural literacy so they can be involved in more social environments.

One phenomenon that occurs in certain media that is called the para-social relationship has an important impact in determining the effectiveness of communication in a system of democracy. Para-social relationship is a new type of relationship that only develops in the new media, such as radio and television, which did not and could not exist in the print media (Horton & Wohl, 1956). Although it is mediated and unidirectional, they argue that it psychologically resembles face-to-face interaction. This type of relationship is formed through the interaction one experiences when watching television, movies, or plays, with the performer. It can be especially important if it is developed with political figures. A system of democracy includes “equal and universal adult suffrage” or the right to vote in political elections (Keane, 1991). The right to vote can only have a real meaning if the voters are well informed. One of the ways for the voters to get information is from the media. Voters can learn much more if they develop a para-social relationship with the candidates when they appear on the new media, especially television. This is also the reason why the coverage of political campaigns and debates are important. The voters can gain not only information about the candidates’ position on the issues and their policies, but also a more in-depth understanding about their personalities as well. Para-social relationship helps ensuring the quality of communication in a democratic system by giving the voters an in-depth understanding of the candidates.

The media have also helped increasing the effectiveness of communication in terms of its time saving. Without the media, the duration of a message to be transferred from one place to another would not be efficient. Another point is that the electronic media allows people to get the news more quickly. Print media such as newspapers or journals are no longer the most updated source of information. People need to know the important events that are happening, whether the events happen in their own environment or in another. They need the information quickly because it might affect the decisions that people will need to make in that same day. For example, if we are planning a trip to a city in another country in the night, but it turns out the city that we were about to visit is devastated by an earthquake in the afternoon, we would surely need the news immediately in order to cancel the trip. The media helps increasing the effectiveness of communication by constantly updating new information.

In conclusion, the effectiveness of communication has been largely improved by mass communication. It helps eliminating the difficulties that are caused by the distance between the sender and the receiver. Telephone plays a significant role in influencing the nature of mass communication despite it may not be generally considered as a mass communication medium. Telephone increases the quality of communication as it promotes the freedom of the speech by allowing people to be heard to a mass of audience. Mass communication influences the ritual dimension of communication by helping the society in its ritual activities to interpret the world. Mass communication allows societies to gain knowledge about various kinds of cultures that will lead them to having cultural literacy in order for them to be involved in more social environments. One phenomenon that only exists in the electronic media that is called the para-social relationship helps ensuring the quality of communication in a democratic system by giving the voters an in-depth understanding of the candidates. The media constantly updates new information to help increasing the effectiveness of communication.



REFERENCES

Betteridge, Jenie 1997, “Answering Back: The Telephone, Modernity and Everyday Life”, Media, Culture, and Society, Vol.19, No.4.

Carey, James 1985, “Two Views of Communication”, Communication as Culture: Essays on Media and Society, Boston: Unwin Hyman, accessed 20 September 2008
(http://www.scholars.nus.edu.sg/landow/post/poldiscourse/2views.html).

Horton, D and Wohl, R 1996, Mass Communication and Para-social Interaction: Observations on Intimacy at a Distance, Psychiatry.

Keane, John 1991, The Media and Democracy, Cambridge: Polity Press.

Meyrowitz, Joshua 1997, “The Separation of Social Space from Physical Place” in O’Sullivan, Tim and Jewkes, Yvonne (eds), The Media Studies Reader, London: Edward Arnold Ltd.

Thompson, John 1997, “Mass Communication and Mass Culture” in O’Sullivan, Tim and Jewkes, Yvonne (eds), The Media Studies Reader, London: Edward Arnold Ltd.

Schirato, Tony and Yell, Susan 1996, “Communication and Culture”, Communication and Cultural Literacy: An Introduction, Sydeney: Allen and Unwin.

A Critique of "Conditioned Emotional Response"

A lack of ethics and a lack of scientific method in conducting an experiment constitute a flawed research. Those are the characteristics of a study on conditioning emotional responses conducted by a John Hopkins University professor, John B. Watson, and his graduate student, Rosalie Reyner, in their article entitled Conditioned Emotional Reactions, which was first published in the Journal of Experimental Psychology (1920). Although the research was done 88 years ago, it has become ‘one of the most cited experiments in textbook psychology…to illustrate the applicability of classical conditioning to the development and modification of human emotional behavior’ (Harris 1979, p.151). However, the fact that it has been used widely does not eliminate its condition: questionable ethics and in need of further scientific approach.

American Psychological Association has established a standard code of ethics and these standards bring to light the research’s questionable ethics. The first indicator, and arguably the most important, is that the experiment on baby Albert was done without the consent of his mother. It is a clear violation of the APA’s code of ethics as stated on point 8.02:
(a) When obtaining informed consent as required in Standard 3.10, Informed Consent, psychologists inform participants about (1) the purpose of the research, expected duration, and procedures; (2) their right to decline to participate and to withdraw from the research once participation has begun; (3) the foreseeable consequences of declining or withdrawing; (4) reasonably foreseeable factors that may be expected to influence their willingness to participate such as potential risks, discomfort, or adverse effects; (5) any prospective research benefits; (6) limits of confidentiality; (7) incentives for participation; and (8) whom to contact for questions about the research and research participants' rights. They provide opportunity for the prospective participants to ask questions and receive answers. (APA 2003)

Watson and Reyner did not abide by the standards. It is a very fundamental mistake that seriously undermines the ethical values of the research. They did not inform his mother about the potential of her baby to establish fear of certain animals or objects. Moreover, they did not inform her that establishing the threshold of fear was exactly the purpose of the experiment. In other words, it could also be said that the experimenters were literally scaring the baby without the mother’s consent. There are some conditions that allow researchers to dispense with informed consent. One of those occasions is ‘when research would not reasonably be assumed to create distress and harm’ (APA 2003). In this case however, the baby Albert experiment certainly involved distress, as it was precisely the objective of the study.

One important point that questions the ethical aspect is that baby Albert has not been given any form of desensitization. The general opinion may argue that the experimenters were not given the chance to recondition Albert as his mother took him during the research. As Watson stated, ‘Unfortunately, Albert was taken from the hospital the day the above tests were made. Hence the opportunity of building up an experimental technique by means of which we could remove the conditioned emotional responses denied us’ (Watson & Reyner 1920). However, he also stated that ‘in view of the imminence of Albert’s departure from the hospital we could not make the interval longer than one month’ (Watson & Reyner 1920). This proves that both Watson and Reyner knew when Albert would be taken away but failed to plan the reconditioning process within the one month interval. It is logical to conclude that if one causes harm or discomfort when conducting an experiment, the reconditioning process to reverse such effects is obligatory.

Apart from its questionable ethics, the research also lacks an in-depth scientific approach. One of Watson and Reyner’s most fundamental mistakes was that they drew a general conclusion from one single experiment. Just because baby Albert looked scared after being exposed to rats and loud clinging sound simultaneously, it does not mean that all babies will be afraid given the same conditions. All of their assertions and conclusions are questionable because they failed to understand the simple fact that it is a fallacy to conclude that all babies can be conditioned to establish various types of emotional response just by succeeding, if it was considered so, in conditioning one baby.

Watson and Reyner also made the mistake to draw a long-term conclusion based on a short-term experiment. It was one of their questions to see how long the conditioned emotional responses can persist (Watson & Reyner 1920). To answer that question and to truly observe the nature of the conditioned fear on baby Albert, a lifetime observation must be conducted. Instead of a long-term observation, baby Albert was only observed for an interval of one month. Baby Albert could develop a phobia of rats, rabbits, hats, and furry coats, he could still be a little scared of the animals and objects, or he could turn out just fine. As the condition of baby Albert after the experimentation is unknown, it is impossible to conclude whether the responses do persist over long period of time or not.

Another falsely drawn conclusion was the over-simplifying generalization theory which proclaims ‘baby Albert feared every white and furry object although he actually showed fear mostly of non-white objects (the rabbit, the dog, the sealskin coat, Watson’s hair) and did not even fear anything with hair (the observers)’ (Harris 1979, p.154). In their article, Watson and Reyner did not mention the colour of the animals and the objects that are used in the experiment.

One serious problem with the experiment is ‘the failure of Watson’s contemporaries to replicate his work’ (Harris 1979, p.155). An important aspect that must not go unnoticed is that an experiment must be able to be duplicated by other researchers in order to ensure that the experiment’s scientific methods are valid. However, ‘attempts to replicate the Albert study using variations of Watson’s own method were unsuccessful’ (Harris 1979, p.155). This shows that Watson and Reyner’s methods were lacking the scientific qualities that are needed for the research to be recognized as a valid study.

The experimenters tend to confuse between correlation and causation. A simple example is when the researchers performed joint stimulation between the rat and the sound. Baby Albert’s ‘reactions’ were that he ‘fell over immediately to the right side…rested upon hands, with head turned away from rat’ and ‘began to whimper…started violently and cried, but did not fall over’ (Watson & Reyner 1920). Even when there are no rats and clinging sounds, one could imagine that it is not an unusual sight to find a baby falling over to the right side or left side and crying violently. Baby Albert could have been hungry or needed his diaper to be changed. Baby Albert could also have been just feeling uncomfortable without his mother around. When one gets struck by a lightning while eating an ice cream, it does not prove that eating an ice cream increases the likelihood of getting struck by a lightning. Correlation cannot be defined as causation.

This also illustrates that the researches often made assumptions in analyzing their data. The data that are presented in the article is vague and indefinable. The experimenters failed to realize that emotional responses such as fear are relative and subjective; it is not the same for everyone. It is possibly easier to observe fear response in adults. For example, when an adult screams and instantly flees while showing certain facial expressions upon sight of a snake, it is likely that such response can be analyzed as fear. However, babies are more difficult to observe because their facial expressions and movements are still limited. Baby Albert’s expression of fear could have occurred when he was sitting still, instead of crying. An example of the researchers’ assumption is the reason that they performed the experiment was because they comforted themselves by the reflections that fear would arise anyway when the baby left the sheltered environment of nursery and grew up (Watson & Reyner 1920). It is a fallacy in thinking because although it is likely, it is not guaranteed that Albert will develop certain fears as he grows up. Albert could have grown as an adult with no fear, or at least, with no fear of animals. It is impossible to conclude one way or another due to lack of data.

Nevertheless, the researchers could be right when concluding crying is a fear response. However, they still lack one important factor: they had nobody else to confirm the fact. Carl Sagan mentioned in his Baloney Detection Kit that one of the indicators of a deceitful research is when it has no independent confirmation of the facts (Sagan, 1995). An independent confirmation of facts is needed to ensure the objectivity of a research because having someone else observing one’s research means that one’s own interpretation of data cannot be biased. The experiment was done by the researchers only and no such independent confirmation was made.

In assessing Watson and Reyner’s experiment, mistakes were also made in the interpretation of the study. One disturbing issue that occurred in interpreting their work is the fact that Watson is one of the most strong and widely known supporters of the behaviorism approach of psychology. This might induce one to think that any experiments done in that (behaviorism) field by him must be valid and unquestionable. Sagan mentioned the issue as an ‘argument from “authority” ‘(Sagan 1995). Just because someone is an expert in certain fields, it does not mean they are unable to make mistakes. Another issue is that there is a tendency to make ‘experimental evidence consistent with textbook theories of how organisms should act’ (Harris 1979, p.154). This happens because it is easier to accept the reality when it is consistent with the theory rather than being in conflict with it, as it raises fewer questions to answer.

In conclusion, there are numerous factors that make Conditioned Emotional Reactions a flawed research. The factors include the unethical values of the research and its lack of scientific approach. Misinterpretations of the experiment also contribute to a further misunderstanding of the study. The factors that question the ethical values of the research, which in today’s conditions would be considered a violation of the American Psychological Association’s code of ethics, are the failure of the experimenters to inform Albert’s mother to conduct an experiment on her son and the failure to reverse the conditioned fear response. The lack of scientific approach is proved by the research’s lack of long-term observation, its fallacy to draw a definitive conclusion from one single short-term experiment, its methods’ inabilities to be replicated by other researchers, and its interpretation of correlation as causation. The researchers also made the mistake in making their own assumptions that are not proved by an independent confirmation of facts. The misinterpretation of the baby Albert study also illustrates the tendency to accept the opinion of an authoritative figure as fact and to easily accept the textbook theory version of facts. The lesson that can be taken from this study is that even authoritative figures can conduct flawed research. Therefore, no research is worth accepted without challenge.



REFERENCES

American Psychological Association 2003, Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, accessed 24 August 2008
(http://www.apa.org/ethics/code2002.html#8)

Harris, Ben 1979, ‘Whatever Happened to Little Albert?’, American Psychologist, vol.34, no.2, pp.151-160, accessed 24 August 2008
(http://www.sussex.ac.uk/psychology/documents/harris_-1979.pdf)

Sagan, Carl 1995, The Demon Haunted World, New York: Random House, accessed 24 August 2008
(http://cse.ssl.berkeley.edu/bmendez/ay10/2002/notes/baloney.html)

Psychology Journal 5: Late Adulthood

Late adulthood is the last period of the human lifespan. It is a period where Erikson (1968) described as the integrity versus despair stage and called it “a new edition of an identity crisis”. It is a period where supposedly one looks back at one’s life and attempt to make sense of it. Peterson (2004) described it as the period when one thinks about life as a whole and locating one’s complete life cycle into the larger scheme of things. The contrasting views of whether the elderly should withdraw from the society or should continue attempting to become a productive member of the society remains. This journal takes a closer look at the two theories relevant to the issue, disengagement theory and activity theory.

The disengagement theory, proposed by Elaine Cumming and William Henry (1961), states that old people deliberately withdraw from their social lives. This also means that in the late stage of life, one should focus entirely on the precious amount of time one has left. As Peterson (2004) concluded:

“Disengagement theory holds that healthy old age consists of a deliberate divorcing of oneself from other people, from social roles and from the active concerns with others and their lives that preoccupies much of mature adulthood.”

She examined the three main postulates of the theory: (1) Disengagement is normative, (2) Disengagement is mutually desired by old people and by society, and (3) Disengagement produces changes in thought patterns. The first postulate is that old people do disengage from society as it is considered normative to do so. The changes that are experienced as part of this process are severed emotional ties with others, the elimination of vocational and social roles, and the reduction in depth of involvement and participation in remaining roles. The second postulate states that old people disengage because they feel it’s natural and necessary. The society also plays a role by encouraging the disengaging behaviour of the elderly. However, the process is considered unhealthy if the disengagement process is enforced without the consent of the elderly. The third postulate is that the disengagement process will have an impact on the older individual’s internal dynamics such as cognitions, emotions, and social interaction. The central element of this postulate is the basic human nature of self-centredness.

In contrast with the disengagement theory, the activation theory provides another way of adjusting to the later stage of life. As Peterson (2004) concluded, the “activation theory depicts continued social activity, commitment and role involvement as essential in order to age successfully.” In other words, the activation theory suggests that one should not withdraw from the society, but instead one should be more involved in whatever roles one can play in the society.

Between the two theories, I am a firm believer of the later. One could find many examples of old individuals gaining prominence for their work that was done in their elderly days of life. One of the best examples I could find is perhaps the 40th President of the United States: Ronald Reagan.

Ronald Reagan has achieved many things that most people could only achieve at a single lifetime; he was a radio sports newscaster, he was an actor, he was a governor, he was a President of the Screen Actors Guild, and of course, he was a President of the United States.

In 1967, twenty years after elected as the President of SAG, Reagan became the Governor of California at the age of 55. He served for eight years until the age of 63. After that, he chose to remain in politics. Moreover, he decided to run for the presidency. In 1976, at the age of 65, Reagan went head to head with incumbent President Gerald Ford to win the Republican nomination in which he narrowly lost. Reagan had not lost his hope yet. He ran again in 1980 and successfully won the Republican nomination and the general election against incumbent Democrat President Jimmy Carter by an overwhelming landslide, collecting 489 electoral votes to Carter’s 49. Reagan became the oldest man elected as President of the United States at the age of 69. He then went on to win his second term at the age of 73 and managed to complete the term at the age of 77. After the presidency, he remained active in his public life until 1994, at the age of 83, when it was revealed that he had suffered from the Alzheimer’s disease. However, he managed to survive the disease for 10 years before encountering his death at the age of 93. According to various polls, Reagan is ranked as one of the greatest US presidents in history.

If there is anything that Ronald Reagan has taught us is that to never stop working hard. His golden days had not arrived in his forties; they arrived at his sixties and seventies. If there was ever such a man capable of becoming the President of the United States in his sixties and seventies, then the notion that one should lay back and enjoy the remaining days of one’s life, as it is what one should and needs to be doing, according to the disengagement theory, is greatly challenged.



REFERENCES

Cumming, E. & Henry, W. (1961). Growing old: The process of disengagement. New York: Basic Books.

Erikson, E. H. (1968). The life cycle. In D. K. Sills (Ed.), International encyclopedia of the social sciences. New York: MacMillan.

Peterson, Candida. (2004). Looking forward through the lifespan. Frenchs Forest, N.S.W.: Prentice Hall.

Polling Report. (2009). (http://www.pollingreport.com/wh-hstry.htm)

Wikipedia. Ronald Reagan. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Reagan)